The overall importance of the Millenium Development Goals project Essay

The overall importance of the Millenium Development Goals project - Essay Example The Millennium Summit was offered with the details of the Secretary General. The Millennium Forum set further contribution, which gathered delegates of more than 1000 non-governmental as well as civil society establishments from over 100 nations. The Forum gathered during May 2000 to wrap up a two year discussion procedure covering topics such as poverty eradication, ecological safeguard, constitutional rights and safety of the helpless. The sanction of the Millennium Development Goals Project was perhaps the most important result of the Millennium meeting. Within the area of harmony and defence, the implementation of the Brahimi account was perceived as appropriately preparing the association to achieve the authorizations provided by the Security Council (Feeny & Clarke, p. 173, 2009). â€Å"The Millennium Development Goals† (Tankut, p. 76, 2009) derived from the Millennium Declaration generated by the United Nations. The Declaration emphasizes that all human beings has the r ight to solemnity, independence, equal opportunity, an essential level of comfort that incorporates autonomy from starvation and aggression, and supports broad-mindedness as well as harmony. The Millennium Development Goals Project were prepared to ‘operationalize’ these plans by setting aims and signs for poverty decline with the intention of achieving the constitutional rights laid down in the Declaration on a set fifteen year timeline (Tankut, p. 76, 2009). Nonetheless, the Millennium Declaration was just part of the starting points of the Millennium Development Goals Programs. It came about from not only the United Nations but as well the â€Å"Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund† (Buvinic et al, p. 221, 2008). The setting took place by a sequence of UN-led conventions in the 1990s concentrating on concerns such as kids, diet, constitutional rights, women and others. On the side of t he Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, there was a disapproval regarding the fall of international Official Development Assistance by most important benefactors. With the beginning of the UN's 50th anniversary, then UN Secretary saw the requirement to deal with the number of advancement concerns. By this time, the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development had already created its International Development Goals and it was shared with the UN's attempts during the World Bank's 2001 conference to shape the Millennium Development Goals Programs (United Nations - Halving Hunger, p. 82, 2005). The Millennium Development Goals Programs concentrate on three most important areas of Human progress: strengthening human capital, recovering infrastructure, and boosting communal, financial and political privileges with most of the focus heading in the direction of rising essential standards of living. The aims selected in the human capital focus take account of recov ering nourishment, healthcare and schooling. For the infrastructure focus, the aims take account of recovering infrastructure by means of increasing access to harmless drinking water, power and contemporary information and communication expertise; strengthening farm productivity by means of sustainable traditions; developing transportation infrastructure; and safeguarding the atmosphere (Spratt, p. 382, 2008). Finally, for the communal, financial as well as political rights focus, the aims t

The Morality of Animal Testing Essay Example for Free

The Morality of Animal Testing Essay Animal testing is undoubtedly one of the most controversial issues in modern society. This practice began in the 19th century; animals were used to test dosing of certain drugs and chemicals. In the 1920’s, animals were also being used to test pesticides and food additives (Fano, 11). Today, animal testing is used to study everything from cosmetics to cancer. With such a wide range of opinions on animal rights and human priority, it is no wonder that this topic is so controversial. There are people who have an extreme view on the issue and are either completely pro or completely con. In my opinion, the issue of animal testing is far too complex for one simple answer; its morality lies somewhere in between the two poles. Animal testing is acceptable if it results in saving people’s lives. It is not acceptable, however, if it results in personal or cosmetic products that are far from vital to the human race. Those who are in favor of animal testing justify it many different ways. Thomas Hamm, a toxicologist and veterinarian, argues that, â€Å"We can’t protect the environment, or people in general, without doing some animal testing. If you’re pro-environment but opposed to animal testing, you’re on shaky ground, because the two positions just aren’t compatible with each other† (Fano, 44). In order to have a safe and successful society, he argues, we must use animals to test chemicals, drugs, treatments, and anything else that will further our knowledge of improving the world, at least for humans. Many people are of the same mind as Hamm. Animal testing reduces the risks of many products, like cosmetics and medication, among many others. Scientists can put safety standards in place for products based on their findings via animal testing. Often, animals will react badly or even die from certain chemicals or combinations, make the humans that use the products far safer. But the most important argument of those in favor of anima l testing is its reliability and comprehensiveness. By using another living being, it is much easier to understand the effects of a drug or chemical on the body and assess its risks. Another positive aspect of animal testing is its convenience. Rodents are the most common test subjects in laboratories. Mice in particular have a relatively short lifespan. This allows scientists to observe a single organism’s life in its entirety in a reasonable time. You could see how a drug, when taken as a baby or adolescent would affect the animal later on in its life. Because many test subjects are bred specifically for the testing purpose, Scientists are able to manipulate, observe, and control every aspect of that animal’s life. This reduces the risk of other variables affecting the outcome of the experiment, making it more accurate. A researcher would know the animal’s entire medical history, which would be necessary in understanding the outcome of several different experiments. Scientists are allowed to kill these animals after the experiment is completed, allowing them to look at how the drug or chemical affected the animal’s entire body system , instead of just its visible affects. For instance, a researcher might observe a given vaccine to have been safe on the mouse, as it was healthy and lived a long life, even though it could have had a hidden negative effect only visible inside its body (Fano, 45). However, the opposition has equally strong and numerous arguments against animal testing. A very popular argument for those against animal testing is its inaccuracy. While it is true animal testing allows you to observe the effects of a drug on an entire body system, some argue that people and the animals used in testing are just too different (Blue). A drug’s safety for a mouse or rabbit cannot ensure safety for humans, who are genetically and biologically much different. This argument has obvious validity; dog owners consider it common knowledge that dogs cannot eat chocolate for safety reasons, and humans in general clearly have no health problems with chocolate. The same could be argued for various medications and products. The main arguments for those who are anti-animal testing is simple: it is inhumane. As an animal lover, some of the research I did included testimonies and photographs that were completely horrifying. Some animals had tufts of fur missing, obvious infections, and missing body parts, like arms and eyeballs. The basic assumption behind animal testing is that animals are lesser than humans (Hayhurst, 10). Those opposed to animal testing have conflicting beliefs and think that, â€Å"other animals have the same rights to life that human animals have† (Hayhurst, 10). Many people, myself included, have opinions somewhere in between these two extremes (Hayhurst, 11). Using animals as test subjects is not so black and white; there are many grey areas. Animals should have the right to live, but not to the same degree as the human species. As awful as it sounds, we view this idea at work everyday. Killing a person obviously has more serious consequences that killing an animal. Animals’ lives are simply not as valued as those of humans. So if the result of using animals as test subjects is a cure for a deadly disease that affects the human race, like cancer, many people believe this is a justified act. In other words, it is acceptable to kill animals if it helps save people’s lives. If animals were used as test subjects for just these types of purposes, it is likely that the animal rights debate would not be nearly as controversial. But the problem is that animal testing is used for much less necessary purposes. Countless cosmetic companies use animals to test their products, such as eye shadow, shampoo, and contact lens solution (Hayhurst, 10). These products are not even coming close to saving people’s lives, yet animals often suffer and die for their production. Many cosmetic companies have either stopped or never started using animals as test subjects. The European Union banned animal testing on personal cosmetic products and the import of products that do use animals. So it is clear that producing these types of products without using animal testing is possible, as many companies do it. However, other companies continue to make animals suffer and often die in the production process (Ellin). The animal rights debate has a long history and has no end in sight. Everyone has a different opinion about the morality of using animals as test subjects. Some are pro, some are con, and some are in between. Those in between believe the purpose of the tests determine its moral rightness or wrongness. To put it simply, it just depends on the situation. If animals must suffer or even die in order to save a human life, then it is justified. But making even one animal suffer to produce unnecessary products, as discussed earlier, is completely immoral and should be brought to an end. Because animal testing encompasses many touchy topics, like an animal’s right to life and the differing importance of animal and human life, people will continue to debate it until there is an alternative that is equal parts ethical, useful, accurate, and convenient. Work Cited: * Hayhurst, Chris. Animal Testing: The Animal Rights Debate. New York: The Rosen Publishing Group, 2000. print. * Fano, Alex. Lethal Laws: Animal Testing, Human Health, and Environmental Policy. New York: Zed Books Ltd., 1997. print. * Balls, Michael. â€Å"Alternatives to Animal Testing: Toward Reducing Uncertainty and Unintended Consequences.† AATEX 16.3 (2011): 101-110 * Blue, Laura. â€Å"How Much Does Animal Testing Tell Us?† Time Magazine 17 June 2008. online. * Ellin, Abby. â€Å"Leaving Animals Out of the Cosmetics Picture.† New York Times 28 December 2011. online.

COMPOSITION AND THE PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN Essay -- Design and Technolog

COMPOSITION AND THE PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN You will apply principles of design and visual organisation to your designs using a combination of balance, scale, unity and proportion, rhythm, symmetry and positive and negative space. By utilising the elements of line, tone, texture, shape, and emphasis, you will achieve visual harmony in your composition and layout. As you develop a working knowledge of the properties of colour, you will apply appropriate colour schemes that reflect the emotions of various consumer markets. PRINCIPLES ========== Balance-an equal distribution of weight. When a design is balanced we tend to feel that it holds together, looks unified and feels harmonious. Understanding balance involves the study of several visual factors-weight, position and arrangement. Weight can be defined as creating the illusion of physical weight on a page and can appear heavy or light. Focal point and visual hierarchy- what do you look at first when you look at a design? You probably look at the point of emphasis, the focal point (part of the design which most stands out). A focal point is chosen by the designer to attract the viewer to look at important points within the design. A main focal point can be established along with supporting secondary focal points, called accents which are not so strongly emphasised. How can you create emphasis? Make it brighter, make it larger, make it go in different direction, position it differently, arrange all the elements to lead to it, isolate it, reverse it, make it a different colour, make it a different shape than other elements, make it clear and the other elements hazy. Rhythm-In music most people think of rhythm as the ‘beat’ a sense of movement from one chord to another, a flow. In design, you can also think of rhythm as the beat, but a beat established by visual elements such as shape, line, colour, texture, than by sound. Rhythm is a pattern that is created by repeating elements and creating a sense of movement from one element to another. When you draw evenly spaced vertical lines on a page you establish a steady rhythm. Movement-Elements should be arranged so that the viewers eye flows from one element to another through the design. Movement and rhythm often go together. Unity-relies on a basic knowledge of the formal elements(line, tone, shape, space, textur... ...ucting the underlying structure of a piece is a bit more complicated — but essential for most designs. Most balanced designs (and even unbalanced ones) rely on a grid. This invisible structure (visible while working in your page layout program) helps ensure that you place all the elements in the right location to achieve balance as well as to help with continuity and consistency of design. Grids can be simple or complex depending on the needs of the design and the designer. Sometimes the use of a grid is obvious. Below: This asymmetrically balanced design uses a simple three column grid to ensure that each text column is the same width and that it is balanced by the nearly empty column on the left. The grid also dictates the margins and ensures that the page number and header appear in the same place on each page. An example of a design with asymmetrical balance and the use of 3-column grid A 5x5 grid keeps this design in line. The grid is obvious along the bottom (each square equals one grid square in this layout) but it is invisibly keeping all those random letters in order in the middle. An example of a design with all over balance with underlying 5x5 grid

How Far Had the Bolsheviks Created a ‘Totalitarian State’ by 1924?

A totalitarian state, is a where the central government of a state does not tolerate any parties with opposing views and exercises complete dictatorial rule over all or most aspects of life. Lenin, the leader of the Bolsheviks, took many measures in an attempt to create a totalitarian state, including the dissolution of Constituent Assembly, the use of decrees and the establishment of a secret police group called the Cheka. However there were also some ways in which he failed to achieve full totalitarianism.The most basic characteristics of a Totalitarian state, are lack of free speech and state control over the media. This is important to establish social control over the state. Lenin's described free speech as ‘bourgeois prejudice', and thus ensured strict control over the media and speech. Understanding the role of propaganda to strengthen his rule, he established the Pravda. The Pravda controlled what media was available to the public and who could utilize it.The Bolsheviks were in reality the only group aloud to publish propaganda, and groups such as the Mensheviks, were not aloud to publish. These rules meant that no negative material about the Bolsheviks could legally be published, and all the public would ever see, would be positive Bolshevik propaganda, increasing their support. This is a key characteristic of a Totalitarian state, and thus is evidence that the Bolsheviks had successfully created a Totalitarian state. Another common aspect of a totalitarian state, is the establishment of a secret police force.Lenin had created a terror police force called the Cheka. Shortly after the establishment of the Bolshevik government, a period knows as the ‘Red Terror' saw mass killings, torture and oppression conducted by the Cheka under orders of the Bolsheviks. This force meant that Lenin could assert his physical authority over the people and counter any opposition. To supplement the secret police, Lenin also established a system of Gulags and L abour camps, specifically aimed at the opponents of the regime. These would house and contain any ‘enemies' of the Bolshevik rule.The creation of the secret police and the establishment of the gulags and labour camps, are signs that Lenin had created a successful totalitarian state, and could assert physical control over the people. The introduction of War Communism during the Russian Civil War, is evidence of Russian moving towards a Totalitarian State. Many aspects of War communism were totalitarian in nature. For instance the creation of a Supreme Economic Council, formed to take complete control over the Russian highlights the central control over the most vital aspect of the state, that the Bolsheviks enforced.Other measures include the requisitioning of excess grain from the Peasants. Many of these policies were met with opposition, particularly among the agricultural peasants. This opposition was in turn met with brutal force, which was another example of the nature of complete state authority. War communism continued on until the end of the Civil war, by which time the Bolshevik forces had succeeded in crushing all opposition. The success of the red forces meant that Russia was a step closer in becoming a Totalitarian state, as they were now the most powerful party in Russia, with complete control over all its territory.Upon the creation of the USSR, Lenin introduced new rule that would ensure greater totalitarian control. Only communists would be able to stand for the soviets, and so this meant that the communist party had the true control over the government. Lenin had also created a ban on internal political factions, during the NEP. He called this ‘democratic centralism'. This ensured that Lenin and the Bolsheviks had strict control over all communists.Alongside the ban on other political parties, these measures are extremely totalitarian in nature, and centralised government control and authority to a high degree, ensuring Lenin and th e Bolsheviks had complete political control over the country. There were however many limits to the Bolshevik control over the country. The totalitarian control that the Government enjoyed with its ‘War communism', was lost by Lenin. The introduction of the NEP, showed Lenin was prepared for loosening economic control in favour of growth to save the economy.The abandoning of ‘War communism and the introduction of the NEP, shows the Bolsheviks losing control over the economy, and capitalist control emerging. Corruption was thus aloud to prosper, as many took advantage of the loser controls. The failures of the NEP and the corruption it introduced offers evidence of the Bolsheviks failing to create a complete totalitarian state. An important factor when considering Bolshevik totalitarian control are the events of the Kronstadt Rebellion. The naval base at Kronstadt were among Lenin's most loyal supporters, and home of the revolutionary Baltic fleet.However they had become disillusioned with Lenin's rule, and made certain demands, notably the end of the special position of the communists and the restoration of free speech. Consequently the base rebelled. The loss of authority over an entire base, and dangerously close to Petrograd, the capital, is a severe sign that the Bolsheviks did not maintain complete totalitarian control over the state. It could be argued that Lenin lost much totalitarian control, because of the weakening of his Leadership. In 1922, Lenin faced his first serious illness, that affected his leadership.An example of his weakening leadership, can be found when examining Joseph Stalin, the General Sectary. Up until Lenin's illness, Stalin had been a strong supporter of Lenin, and did not significantly oppose or cross him. Lenin highlighted his loyalty when describing as ‘that brilliant Georgian'. However when Lenin began to fall ill, Stalin began to oppose many of Lenin's policies. Accompanying this were divisions within the pa rty that grew stronger when Lenin fell ill. This highlights the loss of control that Lenin had due to his illness, and thus is evidence that he had not created a true Totalitarian state.The Bolsheviks under Lenin's leadership had indeed taken steps to create a Totalitarian state. The removal of all and any opposition from the political ‘arena', the establishment of the Cheka and Gulags all helped to strengthen the central control of government over the state. However aspects of the NEP, political divisions, and rebellions from apparently his most loyal supporters, showed how certain aspects were not completely controlled by the state, and thus that Lenin and the Bolsheviks had not created an entirely Totalitarian state.

Developments Leading to the Civil War, 1848-1861 Essay

By 1848, the slavery issue was already dividing the nation and various compromise suggestions had been put forth to no avail. The elections, however, avoided the topic and it won the presidency for Zachary Taylor. Finally, in September 1850 with what was to be known as the Compromise of 1850 finally won in the form of five laws. It was hoped that this would settle the slavery problem once and for all. However, especially controversial was the Fugitive Slave Act which â€Å"compelled northern citizens to catch runaway slaves† which they loathe to do. In 1852, Harriet Beecher Stowe’s novel Uncle Tom’s Cabin was published which brought the horror of slavery to the forefront. Then in 1854, the Kansas-Nebraska Bill was passed wherein they were to be organized as a territory with the slavery issue to be decided by popular sovereignty. It again opened great concern that slavery might extend to Kansas previously declared in the Missouri Compromise as a non-slave territory. An offshoot was the birth of the Republican Party dedicated to fight slavery. Also in 1854, the Democrats made moves to expand further south into Cuba using the Ossend Manifesto to pressure Spain to sell it and if successful, turn it into several slave states. In Kansas, there was chaos. Both pro- and anti-slavery scrambled to settle the area so they can take part in the territory’s vote on the slavery issue. For three years, there was much conflict and bloodshed. It became the â€Å"foretaste of civil war. † In the presidential election of 1856, Kansas was the chief issue. The Democratic candidate James Buchanan won. In 1857, the proslavery groups in Kansas set-up a convention and asked to be admitted as a state by and submitted the Lecompton Constitution to Congress. Buchanan endorsed it. However, Stephen Douglas fishing for the north’s support in his bid for the Senate fought for having it returned to Kansas and passed in a referendum. The people of turned it down. On March 6, 1857, the Supreme Court brought down its ruling on the Dred Scott case. Scott sued for his freedom on the grounds that he lived in both a free state and territory before retuning to Missouri. It was declared that he was a non-U. S. citizen, that he was his master’s personal property and according to the Fifth Amendment of the Constitution, Congress had no right to take way personal property without due process of the law. This last ruling in effect declared the Missouri Compromise unconstitutional. This led to violent opposition. The series of debates between Lincoln and Douglas on the slavery issue also brought it forward to people’s awareness and widened the rift between the North and the South. In 1859, John Brown together with 22 men, an anti-slavery radical, attacked the federal arsenal hoping to provoke an uprising by the slaves. His trial gained more sympathy from the North for his cause but increased the paranoia of the South. For some time, Southern leaders had said that their states would not stay in the Union if an anti-slavery president was elected. Abraham Lincoln who opposed the extension of the slavery in the Territories won in 1860 by popular vote. South Carolina promptly seceded from the Union. In the next two months, Georgia, Alabama, Florida, Mississippi, Louisiana and Texas also seceded. They soon organized the Confederate States of America. On February 4, 1861 they adopted a constitution and elected Jefferson Davis president. Meanwhile, the Federal forts in the South were being taken over by the Confederates including Fort Sumter. Major Robert Anderson was holding it down and asked for provisions from the Federal government. On April 10, Jefferson ordered General P. G. T. Buearegard to get the fort to surrender. Major Anderson refused and on April 12, the Confederates shelled Fort Sumter. The Civil War has begun. Two days later, Fort Sumter surrendered.

Reflection Questions 4 †Education Essay question and answer (200 Level Course)

Reflection Questions 4 – Education Essay question and answer (200 Level Course) Free Online Research Papers Reflection Questions 4 Education Essay question and answer (200 Level Course) Q:What role, if any, does religion play in your philosophy of education? R:Religion plays an active role in my philosophy of education. For me, I believe that in order to personally teach and model character education ethics to others, I must have a faith which derives from God as a Supreme Being and creator of this universe. I believe that our social Morales derive from the Ten Commandments. Q:What do you think that superintendents and principals often ask teaching candidates about their philosophy of education? R:I would think that superintendents and principals would ask a teaching candidate specific questions about their philosophy of education i.e. what school of philosophy to you subscribe to and why? Q:And now, a really hard question: If you are learning toward eclecticism, in what areas of teaching and learning would you draw on the various philosophies presented? R:Through a combined eclectic view of philosophy and learning approach, I would draw on the views all the four schools of thought from the following ideas: from the view of Perennialism, I agree with the idea that schools should teach knowledge through the traditional subjects of history, language, mathematics, science and the arts, with the emphasis on using the Great Books approach. While the goals of the Essentialist are similar in view, to the Perennials, the concept in philosophy is to teach the learner know the essentials in order to live in a progressive and modern world: the above speak of educating the person for society. In view of the philosophy of Progressivism and Romanism, I agree with the ideas that people naturally explore and inquire their environment for solution to problems by using and applying problem-solving methods, in light of the idea that the Romantics consider the individual more important than the needs of society. Research Papers on Reflection Questions 4 - Education Essay question and answer (200 Level Course)Standardized TestingBook Review on The Autobiography of Malcolm XInfluences of Socio-Economic Status of Married MalesRelationship between Media Coverage and Social andBringing Democracy to AfricaResearch Process Part OneCanaanite Influence on the Early Israelite ReligionEffects of Television Violence on ChildrenMoral and Ethical Issues in Hiring New EmployeesAnalysis Of A Cosmetics Advertisement

Ayatollah Khomeini essays

Ayatollah Khomeini essays Ayatollah Khomeini: Maker of the Global Village Leaders of this world shape the happenings of their countrys existence. They can destine the road the nation takes thereby determining the future of its everyday citizens. If a nation is set towards disaster, a leader and his platform can rescue it. If a nation is set towards prosperity, a leader and his party can destroy it. Leaders can contribute to the making or breaking of the global village. Iran is such a nation on this globe, laced with rich culture, traditions and a long history. The Iranian population has seen much from the great Persian Empire founded by the Greeks in 550 B.C. to several monarch dynasties conquering each other. Recently, however, for more than 65,000,000 Iranians located in the South West of Asia the Islamic revolution has surpassed it all. The Shah of Iran, Reza Shah Pehalvi carried out an autocratic rule from the late 40s up to 1979. His government was known for its loyalty towards the United States that supported it to exploit oil wealth from Iran. Effo rts were made to Americanize the Iranian society. The regimes strategies increased inflation, distance between the castes, corruption and tyranny - much to the peoples dismay. By 1977, unrest at the Shahs rule was widespread, demonstrations and strikes were common, and the exiled Ruhollah Mussavi Khomeini took the stage to guide an upheaval. Khomeini emerged as one of the most important revolutionary leader the world has known in the twentieth century. He was proclaimed Time Magazines Man of the Year in 1979 (www.time.com), with an insistence that he was a repressive, Islamic extremist, to which most of the Western world concurs. Yet, he not only established one of the only working democracies in the Muslim world he was also well liked by much of the Iranian population. Ayatollah Khomeini was a maker of the twentieth century global village because of his extrao...

Math Definition of a Sample Space in Statistics

Math Definition of a Sample Space in Statistics The collection of all possible outcomes of a probability experiment forms a set that is known as the sample space. Probability concerns itself with random phenomena or probability experiments. These experiments are all different in nature and can concern things as diverse as rolling dice or flipping coins. The common thread that runs throughout these probability experiments is that there are observable outcomes. The outcome occurs randomly and is unknown prior to conducting our experiment.   In this set theory formulation of probability, the sample space for a problem corresponds to an important set. Since the sample space contains every outcome that is possible, it forms a set of everything that we can consider. So the sample space becomes the universal set in use for a particular probability experiment. Common Sample Spaces Sample spaces abound and are infinite in number. But there are a few that are frequently used for examples in an introductory statistics or probability course. Below are the experiments and their corresponding sample spaces: For the experiment of flipping a coin, the sample space is {Heads, Tails}.  There are two elements in this sample space.For the experiment of flipping two coins, the sample space is {(Heads, Heads), (Heads, Tails), (Tails, Heads), (Tails, Tails) }.  This sample space has four elements.For the experiment of flipping three coins, the sample space is {(Heads, Heads, Heads), (Heads, Heads, Tails), (Heads, Tails, Heads), (Heads, Tails, Tails), (Tails, Heads, Heads), (Tails, Heads, Tails), (Tails, Tails, Heads), (Tails, Tails, Tails) }.  This sample space has eight elements.For the experiment of flipping n coins, where n is a positive whole number, the sample space consists of 2n elements. There are a total of C (n, k) ways to obtain k heads and n - k tails for each number k from 0 to n.For the experiment consisting of rolling a single six-sided die, the sample space is {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}For the experiment of rolling two six-sided dice, the sample space consists of the set of the 36 possible pairings of the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6. For the experiment of rolling three six-sided dice, the sample space consists of the set of the 216 possible triples of the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6.For the experiment of rolling n six-sided dice, where n is a positive whole number, the sample space consists of 6n elements.For an experiment of drawing from a standard deck of cards, the sample space is the set that lists all 52 cards in a deck. For this example, the sample space could only consider certain features of the cards, such as rank or suit. Forming Other Sample Spaces The above list includes some of the most commonly used sample spaces. Others are out there for different experiments. It is also possible to combine several of the above experiments. When this is done, we end up with a sample space that is the Cartesian product of our individual sample spaces. We can also use a tree diagram to form these sample spaces. For example, we may want to analyze a probability experiment in which we first flip a coin and then roll a die.  Since there are two outcomes for flipping a coin and six outcomes for rolling a die, there are a total of 2 x 6 12 outcomes in the sample space we are considering.

Psychology Behind Substance Abuse Research Paper

Psychology Behind Substance Abuse - Research Paper Example From the report it is clear that  more and more people presently are turning towards substance abuse for seeking relief from the distress of many everyday annoyances like paralyzing sense of failure, broken relationships, and other complex tragedies of life.  Thid discussion stresses that  most of the people turn towards the option of drug abuse when they are psychologically saturated from the aggravated worries and this saturated point tempts them to abuse drugs so that they may be able to negate or exchange their blackened depression for positive pleasure or psychological reward. Whether the substance used by the abuser is a stimulant or a depressant, it helps him/her in temporarily forgetting the harsh or ruthless realities or failures of life. Psychological assessment helps in identification of the fact that the patient is habitually and inadequately using drugs because he/she is obsessive about seeking denial from mounting depression. The psychological disorder of substanc e abuse can be managed by effective communication with the patient rather than abruptly referring him/her to a rehabilitation centre without any psychological therapy. The initial euphoric sense that is experienced by a substance abuser serves as a potent psychological pleasure or reward for him/her, which is immediately followed by strengthened feelings of self-confidence in case of a stimulant abuse and relaxation in case of a depressant intake. The street name for such potent and weird psychological effects is rush, which is the bait for all drug abusers who desperately seek refuge from the brutal challenges of life which they find too hard to manage. Psychological analysis of rush reveals that this is experienced by a substance abuser because of the stimulation of the pleasure reward pathway in brain that results in excessive dopamine release, which is responsible for the regulation and transfer of drug and producing the overpowering sensations of pleasure, indulgence, confidenc e, and ego gratification. This gratifying but unearned psychological reward modulates the brain of a substance abuser in such a way that he/she develops a persistent longing for the preferred drug. 4. Rebellion and defiance lead to substance

Distinguishing Any Parallels and Variations within The Texts, Discuss Essay

Distinguishing Any Parallels and Variations within The Texts, Discuss To What Extent Female Power Could Be Said To Exist In The Colour Purple [Alice Walker] A - Essay Example Still, it is immediately difficult from Celie’s â€Å"Dear God,† letters to discern the exact date, but the post slavery setting is obvious by the ownership of property; and that the only â€Å"enslavement† that is apparent is the enslavement of black women, especially very young black women, to black men (Walker, pp. 11-15). Celie, her mother, her sister Nettie, and the other women introduced into Walker’s story seem not to be aware of a lifestyle where they had a choice other that of being subservient to men. Nor do they have any control over the use of bodies by the men in the lives (p16-18). Walker’s protagonist, Celie, begins experiencing the subservient demands and physical demands made by men in their society at the time; she has no choice, she is physically used and abused, although Walker does convey the idea that Celie may have been somewhat prepared for her role even if only by observing her mother’s condition of subservience and as a witness to the physical abuse her mother suffered. That Celie’s first physical experience was at the hands of the man she believed to be her father, worried Celie only to the extent that it caused a crack in the relationship between herself and her mother. Still, Celie sees the man, Albert, who comes to the family initially to negotiate for Celie’s sister, Nettie, as an escape; knowing that she will continue in a subservient role in Albert’s household (Walker, pp. 16-18). At this point, the themes of mental and physical enslavement are evident, even in the post Civil War setting. In Atwood’s story of The Handmaid’s Tale, it’s as though time has moved backward, away from the contemporary life and lifestyle that the young protagonist can still recall in the quiet moments she finds for herself (Walker, pp. 3-4). We do, however, quickly become aware that a â€Å"war† is going on (Atwood, p. 19)She, like Celie, has been relegated to a life of subservience to the male authority, left with no choice

Ethics in the Healthcare Setting Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Ethics in the Healthcare Setting - Essay Example Mr. Robinson is not wrong in administering the medication because the real intent of administering the medication is to relieve patient from immense pain, even though he is known to the fact that the medicine might speed the death of the patient. Patients believe death or assisted suicide is a treatment for controlling the symptom of pain, but health care professional do not need to perceive assisted suicide as an alternative, rather they can treat the health conditions experienced by patients through different ways (Abrahm, 2000, p.325). American Nurses Association states that nurses should look for ways to help relax the symptoms experienced by patients before death such as extreme pain although these methods of relieving can result in hastening of the death process of a patient. Therefore, Dr. Robinson should exercise the administration of the drug on Mr. Mills to help relax his pain even if his life has a threat to become shorter due to this activity (ANA, 1985, p.4). According to Judith Schwarz, health care practitioners such as physicians and nurses may take advantage of the double effect reasoning to save themselves from legal issues. Schwarz even stated that the use of morphine might be conducted with intention of assisting patients in suicide but during inquiry, practitioners state that they used the medicine with the intention of decreasing pain and not with the intention of assisting patients in committing suicide (Schwarz, 2007). According to the consequentialism, the most important aspect of any decision is the outcome of that decision (Duncan, 2010, p.46) . The theory further states that while conducting an act, an individual should have the intention of maximizing those outcomes that are morally important. For example if the aim of conducting an act is to maximize happiness, the use of morphine drug is correct, this is because the drug with maximize

Government Guidance on Child Protection Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Government Guidance on Child Protection - Essay Example For example, to safeguard children in such a manner that each child irrespective of race or class acquires equal share with the aid from charities as charity trustees is the responsibility shouldered by the UK charitable trust (Safeguarding Children, Nov 2006). Similarly other key partners that work along with the Governmental bodies in protecting children have duties to support children's families that are needy and are unable to contribute towards means to alleviate child abuse. That clearly indicates the notion that partnership cannot be created and maintained alone by the agencies unless they are given adequate moral support by the children's family and their informal networks of support. Children's families are also supposed to play role in partnership working because many studies of problems among child population have indicated that children perceive their problems to be connected with the all-encompassing broad domains of school, family, friends and health. Therefore we can say that child's protection starts at home and Government along with the collaboration of other legislation authorities, trustees and educational sectors and practitioners aims to maintain partnership working while seeking through social or professional consensus what is in a child's best interests (Hedy et al, NSPCC). A recent event highlighting such partnerships is that of London's Safeguarding Children's Board which in order to improve collaborative mechanisms instigated recent improvement between various statutory bodies and minority ethnic communities along with managing eight London departments commenced in July 2006 and ended in June 2007 (LSCB, 2006). However the decision to work as partners with the UK Government satisfied the legislatory aspect of children's protection. All the efforts to help eradicate child abuse were in accordance with Children Acts 1989 and 2004, and involved the partnership of other departments like children education, health issues, housing, sexual offences, adoption and domestic violence. The role of parents and professionals in partnership working The efforts of the UK Government to work in partnership enables protection and future prevention of child abuse first by involving the parents to take good enough care of their own children. This is evident from the section 2.3.4 from the Children's Act that enables parents to accompany their children during school hours and professionals are suppose to keep their eyes on children who are missing at schools, are never enrolled or one who has not attended school for a while (LSCB, procedure). This, the professionals are supposed to do in collaboration with the child's family according to section 3 of the procedure's manual (LSCB, procedures). This indicates that the first partners in partnership working with the Government are the parents as they play a central role in their children's protection and welfare and should therefore be involved, wherever possible, in all decisions and actions relating to them. While working in all stages of the child protection process parents realise that their children have a

Designing Effective Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

Designing Effective - Research Paper Example Based on this importance, the paper emphasizes the need for further research into opportunities presented by effective designing of contracts. This paper dissects how framing and expectations of contracts influence the contract’s performance. Various researches have attempted to look into the ubiquitous nature of contracts. Some have mentioned that contracts are merely necessary safeguards which secure parties involved in a contract against potential undesirable behaviors by the involved parties. This facilitates exchanges. Many scholars note that mitigation of the threats arising from contracts is dependent on contractual framing and expectations. Recent evidence from researches suggests contract framing play an important role in determining how contractual application is implemented. For instance, contracts which are framed with a loss in mind in case of failure to meet threshold amounts to the involved parties making greater effort. Similarly, contracts framed with a gain in mind, the parties will also be motivated to work even extra hard. The expectation of something is seen to motivate an action in implementation of the contract. Many contract theorists have begun systematic unpacking of behavioral implications associated with contract frame and expectations from the same (Weber and Mayer 56). A key emerging issue in design of effective contracts is the psychological impacts of framing and expectations of contracts. Despite widespread knowledge of the role of contracts in ensuring mitigation of hazards through development of safeguards, there exists little knowledge with regard to psychological impacts of the contracts. Contract framing offers a potential mechanism to psychologically affect the exchange or continuous partnerships.as revealed in the study, contracts aim at protecting the parties involved in a relationship against any form of opportunistic behavior thus boosting the confidence of the parties involved so that they can proceed with the

Global Warming Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 6

Global Warming - Research Paper Example Furthermore, certain agricultural and waste management practices worsen the problem by releasing other global warming gases that are potent such as nitrous oxide and methane. Global warming has both positive and negative effects to human beings and ecosystem as a whole. According to BÃ ¶hringer et al, several studies, shows that the global temperature shows a warming trend. Consequently, based on scientific studies of ice cores, coral reefs and tree rings; a result about the global temperatures increasing is made. Furthermore, starting from the Industrial Revolution in the mid of 1700s, the global average temperatures has increased with emphasize in the past several decades. According to World Meteorological Organization, temperature of global land surface has been ranked warmest from records calculated since 1880. Furthermore, global average temperature has increased over the last century by more than 1Â °F (0.7Â °C). Consequently, the 2001-2010 decade is the warmest since 1880. Actually, nine of the warmest recorded years happened in just the last 10 years. Moreover, this warming has come with a decrease in very cold days and nights and an increase in real hot days and warm nights. For instance; United States, has since recorded daily highs tw ice as frequently recorded daily lows from 2000 to 2009. Consequently, the record shows that some areas of the world are warming at a high rate than others. Generally, the long-term global upward trend is clear. There are signs of global warming seen in the North Pole there include; Sea ice melting, the tundra warming up, glaciers in retreat, some species becoming endangered and disappearing significantly and the sea level rising. According to U.S Geology Survey (2007), it is estimated that changes in sea ice conditions will led to an extinction of nearly 50% of bear’s population in 2050. Naturally, land and

Designing Effective Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

Designing Effective - Research Paper Example Based on this importance, the paper emphasizes the need for further research into opportunities presented by effective designing of contracts. This paper dissects how framing and expectations of contracts influence the contract’s performance. Various researches have attempted to look into the ubiquitous nature of contracts. Some have mentioned that contracts are merely necessary safeguards which secure parties involved in a contract against potential undesirable behaviors by the involved parties. This facilitates exchanges. Many scholars note that mitigation of the threats arising from contracts is dependent on contractual framing and expectations. Recent evidence from researches suggests contract framing play an important role in determining how contractual application is implemented. For instance, contracts which are framed with a loss in mind in case of failure to meet threshold amounts to the involved parties making greater effort. Similarly, contracts framed with a gain in mind, the parties will also be motivated to work even extra hard. The expectation of something is seen to motivate an action in implementation of the contract. Many contract theorists have begun systematic unpacking of behavioral implications associated with contract frame and expectations from the same (Weber and Mayer 56). A key emerging issue in design of effective contracts is the psychological impacts of framing and expectations of contracts. Despite widespread knowledge of the role of contracts in ensuring mitigation of hazards through development of safeguards, there exists little knowledge with regard to psychological impacts of the contracts. Contract framing offers a potential mechanism to psychologically affect the exchange or continuous partnerships.as revealed in the study, contracts aim at protecting the parties involved in a relationship against any form of opportunistic behavior thus boosting the confidence of the parties involved so that they can proceed with the

Nonprofit Sports Marketing Plan Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4500 words

Nonprofit Sports Marketing Plan - Assignment Example It is evidently clear from the discussion that UBA will be operating mainly for the population of Saipan. However, it plans to continue on its success, of organizing inter-Island tournaments. The main target market will be students of public schools who do not get enough opportunities to play high-quality Basketball. UBA plans to build a reputation and differentiate itself from its customer on the basis of its officials and referees. The capital expenditure is nonexistent for UBA thus risk associated with UBA will be very low. With dedication and expertise, UBA will grow into a nonprofit brand which is the symbol of Basketball in Saipan. With the advent of consumerism, a phenomenon not new to the human race has surfaced once again. As a result of capitalism, we live in a society which doesn’t give equal opportunities to everyone; some of our brightest talents are wasted because of a lack of opportunities. Thus the need arises for organizations which would compensate for this i nequality by providing free services to the young minds of tomorrow. Ventures such as these are not only an act of philanthropy, bringing our society together in an act of charity but also entrepreneurial in nature. They create jobs thus reduce unemployment and add to the GDP. Team sports are the basic tool in the upbringing of any child. They instill the basic sense of loyalty that is necessary to a tribal being such as humans. They provide the basic training in how to live in a society, how to belong to something else outside your own personality and a home. This is a feeling which later develops into nationalism and humanity. A very famous team sport is Basketball. With millions of diehard fans in America now the game is expanding fast to other nations of the world. Recently it became part of the Olympics as well. Basketball requires the players to display accuracy, strength, agility, and guile for success.

Muslim Empires Essay Example for Free

Muslim Empires Essay The Ottoman Turks consisted of Turkic-speaking nomadic people who had spread westward from Central Asia in the ninth, tenth, and eleventh centuries. They were located in the northwestern corner of the peninsula, which allowed them to expand westward and eventually take over empires between the Mediterranean and the Black Seas. The sultan was the supreme authority in both a political and a military sense. Administrative and military power were centralized under the bey, who was only a tribal leader, tribal law was before Muslim law. The Ottoman authorities were Sunni Muslims. The sultan assigned duties to a supreme religious authority, who then maintained a system of schools to educate Muslims. There were some who believed in Sufism or other doctrines, but the government allowed it as long as they were still loyal to the empire. Non-Muslims had to pay a head tax since they were exempt from military service. The Ottoman Empire was divided into four main occupational groups: peasants, artisans, merchants, and pastoral people. Shah Ismail founded the Safavid Dynasty. The Safavids was a mixed society like the Ottoman Empire; majority of the population were Iranian. They used the Shi’ite faith, and Shi’ism was declared the state religion. Like the Ottoman’s sultan, the Safavids had their shahs who would check up on their people. This empire was not as wealthy as the Ottomans and the Mughals. Their greatest area of productivity was in textiles. The founder of the Mughal Dynasty is known as Babur. Ruling of the dynasty was passed down from Babur to his son, Humayun, and then to his grandson, Akbar. As emperor, Akbar didn’t just focus on the views of Muslim but also gave Christian views a chance. He later formed a new type of worship called the Divine Faith, which combined characteristics of different religions. He believed in having a harmonious society, which meant each individual and group would play their assigned role and contribute their part to society. This dynasty was the last of the great traditional Indian dynasties. All three of the empires were Muslim, and they all displayed an impressive capacity to create and run a large empire. The Muslim World was protected by the military and political abilities of these empires. Unlike their European counterparts, these empires continued to thrive.

International Entrepreneurship leads to greater cultural understanding

International Entrepreneurship leads to greater cultural understanding Globalization of the world market brings new possibilities as well as enormous hurdles for both established and young businesses. With the emergence of international entrepreneurship, entrepreneurs are concentrating on specific issues that they face operating in complex environments affected by diverse national cultures and institutional influences (Johanson Vahlne, 2009). New global entrepreneurs depend on global networks for resources, distribution, and designs for growth. International entrepreneurs realize that success in a new marketplace requires agility, ingenuity, and certainty with a global viewpoint to acquire sustainability. Thus, global thinking is beneficial since foreign business clients can choose ideas, products, and services from many countries and cultures. However, entering into a foreign environment and culture can also become an obstacle psychologically in and of itself for the individual international entrepreneur (Mitchell et al., 2002). This paper will examin e two areas that focus on the importance of cultural understanding in international entrepreneurship. The first will comprise of how entrepreneurs who expand into international markets must know how to think globally in order to design and adopt strategies for different nations as a business ventures into an uncertain market. The second part will explore how psychological adaptation of the individual entering a foreign culture is interconnected with the international entrepreneur. Entrepreneurs can expand their business by participating in the global market; as every year thousands of small business enterprises are actively engaged in the international field. International entrepreneurship studies have started to focus on specific topics that confront entrepreneurs as they expand their new ventures (Zahra, Korri, Yu, 2005). The definition of international entrepreneurship in this paper will focus on the process of creatively discovering and exploiting opportunities that lie outside of a firms domestic markets in the pursuit of competitive advantage (Zahra George, 2002); across national borders, to create future goods and services (Oviatt McDougall, 2005). This meaning incorporates the process aspect of international entrepreneurship, which focuses on a central issue of why some individuals exploit international opportunities while others equally well placed do not act on them (Zahra, Korri, Yu, 2005). Globalization is a process fuelled by increasing cross border flows of goods, services, money, people, information, and culture (Held et al., 1999, p. 16). However, the use of this term will refer to Guillà ©ns (2001) definition of globalization as a process leading to greater interdependence and mutual awareness among participants in general. Guillà ©n (2001) combines the understanding of globalization as the intensification of consciousness of the world as a whole, and as the diffusion of practices, values and technology that have an influence on peoples lives worldwide (Guillà ©n, 2001). Noticing opportunities is normally more difficult in international settings, and the level of uncertainty that the potential entrepreneur must undergo will also be greater. Entrepreneurs able to function successfully in international settings may be both more skilled at noticing opportunities and have a greater capacity to endure the uncertainty associated with international entrepreneurship (Lu Beaamish, 2001). Noticing opportunities is normally more difficult in international settings, and the level of uncertainty that the potential entrepreneur must endure will also be greater (Coviello, 2006). Oviatt and McDougall (2005) emphasized that international entrepreneurs display the intention to compete in multiple locales at the inception of the firm to exploit existing international opportunities and would have the intention to do so when they started their firms (McNaughton, 2003). Starting a firm is a difficult process under the best of circumstances. International business scholars have traditionally argued that internationalization is difficult because firms had to overcome a liability of foreignness, although Johanson and Vahlne (2009) have recently acknowledge that being part of an effective network and prior knowledge can greatly accelerate the international entrepreneurship process. This liability of foreignness was based on the fact that firms and entrepreneurs lacked knowledge about doing business in other countries, which meant they had to endure the costs of learning and the discomfort of uncertainty (Lu Beaamish 2001). However, by positioning themselves in relevan t networks, or because of their past experience, many entrepreneurs have high levels of operational knowledge about foreign markets. In this manner, the traditional approaches for dealing with the liability of foreignness of either imitating local firms or by transferring unique organizational or managerial competences to their foreign unit (Sapienza et al., 2006) have been supplemented with a knowledge component, which is more related to uncertainty. There has been an acknowledgement that firms could begin to internationalize sooner and Sapienza et al. (2006, p. 915) suggest that the earlier a firm internationalizes, the more deeply imprinted its dynamic capability for exploiting opportunities in foreign markets will be. Others have pointed out the benefits of internationalizing earlier, or at least exporting at an earlier stage (Kundu Katz 2003). This may be because although there is a cost to learning, early entrants begin this process sooner (Autio, Sapienza, Almeida, 2000) an d at least some suggest they should do this before they actually start the firm (Coviello, 2006). An entrepreneur who would like to take advantage of international markets may have to study a foreign language, may have lived abroad and may be face with culture shock. Entrepreneurs must realize their companys competitive advantage such as: technology, price, financial superiority, or marketing, product innovation, an efficient distribution network or possession of exclusive information about the foreign market (Sapienza et al., 2006). Declining market conditions at home may cause entrepreneurs to seek foreign markets to help their business. Successful global entrepreneurs should have the following characteristics: a global vision, international management experience, innovative marketing or technology processes, a strong international business network, and effective organizational coordination worldwide (Lee, Peng, Barney, 2007). When global opportunities occur, entrepreneurs are likely more open-minded about internationalizing. The advantage of international trade is that a companys market is expanded much and growth prospects are greatly raised. Other advantages include minimizing seasonal slumps, reducing idle capacity, getting knowledgeable about products not sold in target markets, technology used in other countries, and learning about other cultures (Johnson, Lenartowicz, Apud, 2006). Before going to a foreign market, it is essential to study the unique culture of the potential consumers. Concepts of how the product is used, psychographics, demographics, and political norms as well as legal normally differ from an entrepreneurs home country (Miller Parkhe, 2002). De Tienne Chandler (2004) suggest that entrepreneurs must consider five factors relative to the country and cultures that the business venture will inhabit. First, they must study foreign government regulations: patent, import regulations, t rademark laws, and copyright that affect their products. Second, they must know political climate: relationship between business and government or public attitudes and political events in a given country affect foreign business transactions. Third, they must consider infrastructure: packaging, distribution system, and shipping of their export product. Fourth, they must research distribution channels: accepted trade both retail and wholesale, service charges and normal commissions, distribution agreements and laws pertain to agency. And fifth, they must study competition: number of competitors in target nations and their market share, as well as their price, place, product and promotion. Additionally, they must find market size: of their product stability, size, country by country, and know what nations are markets expanding, opening, maturing, or declining (De Tienne Chandler, 2004). Eventually, entrepreneurs must understand culture of their products. Small businesses can study int ernational cultures by business travel, participating in training programs, reading the current literature, and undertaking formal educational programs. Small business, who wants to sell product on a worldwide basis must realize different standardization in each country. In some cases, goods must be adapted for different local markets if it is to be accepted and consumer goods always require much more adaptation (Johanson Vahlne, 2009). One issue related to international opportunity is why individuals in home countries are not the ones that take action on these opportunities, which would seem logical, as they are better positioned to notice. This question is especially important because research indicates that local firms usually have higher levels of performance than do foreign firms (Miller Parkhe, 2002). While the matter of liability of foreignness is present in some cases, this relates to firms competing in the same industry. Thus, when locals begin to imitate the foreign firm, they may in fact end up with higher levels of performance, because of factors such as lower lawsuit awards (Mezias, 2002). However, national average levels of entrepreneurship to uncertainty, opportunity, and cognition uncertainty avoidance are not identical across countries (Hofstede, 2001). This suggests that although it is possible that both a local and foreigner notice a specific opportunity at the same time, the local may not act fo r both the fear of failure and stigma attached to that failure in certain cultures (Lee, Peng, Barney, 2007). Thus, the potential entrepreneur must also be willing to endure the uncertainty associated with acting on these opportunities. To gain insight into effective professional task performance across cultures, an understanding of effective communication and psychological adaptation has to be complemented by an exploration of the effect of culture on task process. Over the last few years studies on cross cultural competencies in different professional fields have started to emerge. Examining the relationship between national culture and entrepreneurship is an important emerging subject matter in international entrepreneurship (Hayton, George, Zahra, 2002). The sociological viewpoint on entrepreneurship proposes that entrepreneurs are intertwined in a social framework and their cognitive process and behaviours are shaped by the interactions between the environment and entrepreneur (Zahr, Korri, Yu, 2005). There is also evidence of the impact of national cultural values on the characteristics and behaviour of individual entrepreneurs (Mitchell et al., 2002). Mitchell et al. (2002) confirmed that entrepreneurs share a set of cultural values, regardless of their national origin or cultural background. However, it appears that whilst some core values are shared across different countries and cultures, some of the behaviours of individual entrepreneurs reflect the value system of their respected national culture. With regards to adaptation in international entrepreneurship, entering into a foreign environment is not a transition for the business venture alone. The actors, international entrepreneurs, involved are also plunging into same the foreign environment (Hofstede, 2001). Entering a new culture means commencing to share a pattern of thinking, feeling, reacting, and problem-solving (Saee, 1999). Cross-cultural psychology argues that unfamiliar cultural territory negatively affects an individuals affective, both the sense making and cognitive mechanisms, and undermines the appropriateness and effectiveness of their behavioural responses (Maznevski Lane, 2004). This happens when individuals are unable to accurately perceive and interpret the alien cultural environment, nor explain or predict the behaviour of people with different cultural backgrounds (Maznevski Lane, 2004). Evidence suggests that exposure to a foreign cultural environment can cause culture shock, a psychological conditio n which adversely affects psychological and affective states (Johnson et al., 2006). Saee (1999) contends that opportunity identification competencies developed in an entrepreneurs home cultural environment may not be sufficient to perceive a high level of entrepreneurial self-efficacy about performing the task of identifying opportunities across borders and cultures. Cross-cultural studies have explored the challenges that a foreign cultural environment poses to human behaviour, cognition, and professional performance. Human behaviour is considered the coping mechanism that individuals consequently develop. Some researchers suggest that building this coping mechanism, in individuals, amounts to developing a global mindset or cultural intelligence (Maznevski Lane, 2004; Early Mosakowski, 2004). According to Maznevski and Lane (2004, p. 172), a global mindset is the ability to develop and interpret criteria for personal and business performance that are independent from the assumptions of a single country, culture, or context; then to adequately implement those in different countries, cultures, and contexts. Cultural intelligence is seen as the ability to interpret the foreigners behaviour the way the foreigners countryman would (Earley Mosakowsi, 2004). Cross-cultural competence is defined as the appropriateness and effectiveness of ones behavi our in a foreign cultural environment (Mitchell et al., 2000). Psychological adaptation is considered the centre point of personal traits and attributes that help generate internal responses in an unfamiliar environment by managing stress (Saee, 1999). Successful adaptation to a host cultural environment requires the abilities to be mindful, to tolerate ambiguity, and the ability to explain and make accurate predictions of strangers behaviour (Saee, 1999). This also includes the levels of anxiety and uncertainty that affect the intercultural encounter (Saee, 1999). CONCLUSION: International entrepreneurs actually face greater uncertainty than is generally common in more established businesses, which benefit from learning and experience, because international entrepreneurship is about the implementation of a new innovative business. There is an uncertainty to entrepreneurship and the role it plays in initiating the process. Mitchell et al., (2000) observes that entrepreneurial action is a result of overcoming and paralysis that is caused by the uncertainty that precedes the entrepreneurial act. Guillà ©n (2001) adds that the key concept that entrepreneurs create new combinations, which become the innovations that are the engine of economic growth. The entrepreneur is likely to see the opportunity as relatively certain. This is important with regards to international entrepreneurship in that exploiting an international opportunity requires more than dealing with operational certainty; there is also a high level of cultural uncertainty that the entrepreneur has to endure to ensure the new ventures prosperity. The volume of research on international entrepreneurship supports the notion that a period of domestic development is no longer necessary for many firms and that international entrepreneurship is possible at the time the firm is established or shortly thereafter. However, consideration must be taken with respect to the foreign culture a venture will go into and the psychological affects upon the entrepreneurs joining in the venture. Effective operation in the globalised economy requires that entrepreneurs develop new skills and competencies. Some of these skills and competences are needed to deal with national and regional cultural differences that are becoming intense with the continuance of globalisation (De Tienne Chandler, 2004). (Authors) believe that current and future international entrepreneurs need to develop cross-cultural competence to successfully identify business opportunities.

The Influence of Lord Henry in The Picture of Dorian Gray, by Oscar Wil

In analyzing Oscar Wilde’s The Picture of Dorian Gray, concepts such as influence and the origin of evil in Dorian Gray play an exceptionally valuable role in understanding the motives of the characters. Although some critics argue characters such as Lord Kelso significantly influence Dorian’s corruption, Lord Henry Wotton’s toxic personality undeniably impacts Dorian the most. Throughout the course of the novel, Lord Henry remains the ultimate source of evil and uses deception and persuasion to poison Dorian from a naà ¯ve boy to a destructive monster. Shortly after meeting Dorian for the first time, Lord Henry calmly declares, â€Å"to influence a person is to give him one’s own soul† (20). In these few words, Lord Henry foreshadows the entirety of his relationship with Dorian throughout the novel. By sharing his unique thoughts about the scientific view of influence, Lord Henry captures Dorian’s curiosity and attention, opening the door to the beginning of Dorian’s evolution Lord Henry continues to bruise Dorian’s perfection on page 21 when he lectures Dorian about the key to a rewarding life through means of the senses. In response to these dangerous regarding influence, sensation, temptation, and beauty, Dorian commands Lord Henry to stop speaking as he absorbs the new light shed upon him: For nearly ten minutes he stood there, motionless, with parted lips, and eyes strangely bright. He was dimly conscious that entirely fresh influences were at work within him. . . The few words that Basil’s friend had said to him – words spoken by chance, no doubt, and with willful paradox in them – had touched some secret chord that had never been touched before, but that he felt was now vibrating and throbbing to curious puls... ...n goes on to murder Basil in a moment of pure hatred, allowing Lord Henry to ultimately succeed in his aims of winning Dorian’s soul. Careful examination of Dorian’s initial susceptibility to influence, willingness to commit sin, and interactions with other characters prove Lord Henry plays the biggest role in transforming Dorian from pure to vicious. With his cunning theories and brainwashing comments, Dorian cannot muster the strength to resist Lord Henry’s dominating nature, showing there are no limitations in relationships when it comes to influence. The topic of which character primarily influences Dorian to turn to a dishonest lifestyle is undeniably significant in understanding the purpose of the characters as well as the deeper meaning of the text. Work Cited Wilde, Oscar. The Picture of Dorian Gray. New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1993.

China and Europe during the Middle Ages Essay

Globalisation is not new, though. For thousands of years, people and, later, corporations have been buying from and selling to each other in lands at great distances, such as through the famed Silk Road across Central Asia that connected China and Europe during the Middle Ages. Likewise, for centuries, People and corporations have invested in enterprises in other countries. In fact, many of the features of the current wave of globalisation are similar to those prevailing before the outbreak of the First World War in 1914. But policy and technological developments of the past few decades have spurred increases in cross-border trade, investment, and migration so large that many observers believe the world has entered a qualitatively new phase in its economic development. Since 1950, for example, the volume of world trade has increased by twenty times, and from just 1997 to 1999 flows of foreign investment nearly doubled, from $468 billion to $827 billion. Distinguishing this current wave of globalisation from earlier ones, author Thomas Friedman has said that today globalisation is further, faster, cheaper, and deeper. The current wave of globalisation has been driven by policies that have opened economies domestically and internationally. In the years since the Second World War, and especially during the past two decades, many governments have adopted free-market economic systems, vastly increasing their own productive potential and creating myriad new opportunities for international trade and investment. Governments have also negotiated dramatic reductions in barriers to commerce and have established international agreements to promote trade in goods, services, and investment. Taking advantage of new opportunities in foreign markets, corporations have built foreign factories and established production and marketing arrangements with foreign partners. A defining feature of globalisation, therefore, is an international industrial and financial business structure. Technology has been the other principal driver of globalisation. Advances in information technology, in particular, have dramatically transformed economic life. Information technologies have given all sorts of individual economic actors consumers, investors, businesses valuable new tools for identifying and pursuing economic opportunities, including faster and more informed analysis of economic trends around the world, easy transfers of assets, and collaboration with far-flung partners. Globalisation is deeply controversial, however. Proponents of globalisation argue that it allows poor countries and their citizens to develop economically and raise their standards of living; while opponents of globalisation claim that the creation of an unfettered international free market has benefited multinational corporations in the Western world at the expense of local enterprises, local cultures, and common people. Resistance to globalisation has therefore taken shape both at a popular and at a governmental level as people and governments try to manage the flow of capital, labour, goods, and ideas that constitute the current wave of globalisation. COCULSION: In sum, most distinctive conception sees globalisation as a fundamental transformation of human geography on the eve of the twenty-first century; world affairs have acquired a rapidly growing global dimension alongside the territorial framework of old. Of course – and this point cannot be stressed too much – it is not that territorial space has become wholly irrelevant in contemporary history. We live in a globalising rather than a completely globalised condition. Global spaces of the kind formed through telecommunications, transworld finance, and the like interrelate with territorial spaces, where locality, distance and borders still matter very much. Thus, for example, people have not while acquiring a global imagination discarded their affinities for particular territorial places. Similarly, global marketers have found on countless occasions that they need to tailor their products and promotions to local sensibilities. Globalisation is a process of interaction and integration among the people, companies, and the governments of different nations, a process driven by international trade and investment and aided by information technology. This process has effects on the environment, on culture, on political systems, on economic development and prosperity, and on human physical well being in societies around the world. BIBLIOGRAPHY: www.globalisationguide.org

Off Job and on Job Analysis Essay

Introduction of Topic The subject study is aimed to investigate an issue i. e. â€Å"Comparative Analysis of on-job & off-job training effects on employee performance† for this I have select to method of training off job training and two moderate variables environment and trainers which control on employee performance. On job training and off job training variable are conducted as comparative variable while other variable conducted as moderate variables. In general the organizations are using performance appraisals in order to appraise their employees and to assess their annual performance. Performance Appraisals have become a management craze over the past decade whereby every organization seems to think that by faithfully adhering to this practice, people within the organization will grow and develop in the company image. Nothing could be further from reality. Experience has proved to me that since those who are carrying out the assessment are usually poorly trained, poorly prepared and with an ‘ I am your boss so I must be more effective than you’ attitude. The result is often than not highly subjective and of very little value to either the organization or to assess. Every human resource manager knows that through training they can improve the skills or performance of employees or work force. But I want to clear which training method is most beneficial for work force. So that human resource manger would provide that training method which is most suitable for improve the performance of employees. For this purpose I conduct my research and comparative analysis that which training method is efficient and which factor influence more on performance of an employee. Problem Statement: Comparative Analysis of on-job & off-job training effects on employee performance Objective Statement: From side to side training can get better the skills or achievement of employees. My objective of conduct a comparative research is to find out efficient method of training to enhance or improve the skill of employee. Introduction to Variables: Dependent variable: Performance of Employee Independent Variables: On job training, Off job training Moderate Variables: Environment, Trainers Chapter 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE. Training on the job has become a major source of skill buildup for workers in the last two decades due to the rapid pace of technological change. Studies by Bishop (1994) and Bartle and Lichtenburg (1987), among others, establish that a well-trained workforce provides returns to employers in the form of higher productivity and better flexibility to technological change. Hence, there is a strong incentive for employers to sponsor training for their workforce. However, employers also need to think with the possibility that workers may quit before employers can fully realize the benefits of the training that was provided. For nearly three decades since Becker (1964) classified training as general training (training that builds skills transferable to other firms) or specific training (training that builds firm-specific skills), researchers have assumed that employers would be more willing to sponsor specific training as opposite to general training that could be used elsewhere. However, many recent experimental studies have failed to provide any evidence for this idea. Instead, experimental research has consistently found that most employer-sponsored training does, in fact, provide employees with skills that are transferable to other employers (i.e. , that most employer-sponsored training should be classified as general training). Studies by Barron, Berger and Black (1999), Lowenstein and Splatter (1999), Booth and Bryan (2002) find, that most or all the training that is sponsored by employers result in workers acquiring general skills that can be used at other firms. Such recent findings have sparked a changed interest in the following question: do workers who acquire transferable skills from employer-sponsored training continue working in the same job or do they seek better returns for their newly acquired skills from other  employers? While this question has been explored in many recent studies, most of this research (possibly due to the nature of the survey data available) has focused on younger workers or a cross-section of workers. In doing this, workers who are in the middle of their careers – a subset of workers who enjoy a considerable benefit from training – have been overlooked; it is well-understood that the type of training undergone by young workers is considerably different from the re-training of mid-career workers. De Grip and Van Loo (2002) detail the various ways, in which a workers skill may degrade over the course of a career, necessitating corrective on-the-job training is often essential to maintaining worker productivity. In this context, it could be reasonably expected that the nature of training mid-career employees receive would take fundamentally different forms than training for the labor force at large. Also, workers tend to be highly mobile between jobs early in their careers; Topel and Ward (1992), for example, show that a typical worker holds seven different jobs during the first 10 years of his/her career, with the rate of job mobility then declining significantly. Hence, employers may be more willing to sponsor general training for such workers, believing that they would be more likely to experience the rewards of this training due to the decreased job mobility at this stage of the worker’s career. Effective training programmers’ require the dedicated support of top management (Motwani, Frahm et al. 1994). Such organizations provide training mapped to employee and organizational needs (Mann, 1997), and provide this at the proper time. Yet, not all companies place the same emphasis on, or show the same commitment to employee training (Roberts and McDonald, 1995; Hughey and Mussnug, 1997). Some companies work hard to recruit the best people and yet spend relatively little effort to retain them once hired (Cappelli, 2000). There is evidence to show that benefits follow to organizations that are committed to employee training (Wills, 1994). Organizations that place a high value on training give resources to the management of the training process. They devote time to ensuring that employees get the training programmers’ that is most appropriate for them given their existing IT skill sets (Eighteen, 1999). Such firms are most successful at maximizing the effectiveness of their training programs (Huang, 2001). Organizations that commit effort and finances to training programmers’ and employee development do so with the  objective of a pay-off in terms of increased skill-sets, increased motivation, increased knowledge transfer (Pate, Martin et al. , 2000), more positive psychological and organizational dynamics, as well as a measurable aggressive edge. The use of training courses future outstrips what is known of their usefulness (Foxon, 1989; Schonewille, 2001). Mann (1996) maintains that despite heavy investment in training, organizations can frequently fail to evaluate adequately the value or success of their training programmes. Organizations that devote considerable resources to training also understand the value of evaluating the training process (Motswana, Frahm et al. , 1994; Mann, 1996). Such evaluation is a key phase in any proposed training and development process (Al-Khayyat and Elgamal, 1997). While such appraisal is desirable in principle it is difficult in practice (Morris, 1984). Even those companies who do carry out evaluations often use measures later considered ineffective (Schonewille, 2001). The most common metric of evaluation is trainee perceptions . Such assessments are random, informal, and unstructured evaluations of training programmers, which tend to be post training appraisals rather than approaching the evaluation of training programmers from their design stages (James and Rolfe, 2000). Many forms of training exist ( Switzer and Kleiner, 1996; Huang, 2001). The range of training techniques has been expanded by the application of technology in its â€Å"hard† (for example through computing technology) and â€Å"soft† (for example through instructional design) (Sadler-Smith, Down et al. , 2000). In relation to IT training, many methodologies for the approach to and delivery of training can be used: forms of training include instructor console training in a classroom situation, stand-alone terminals with remote instruction, computer based training (CBT) without instructor, hypermedia training (a computer based method of non-sequential reading and writing, a technique with which chunks of information can be arranged and rearranged according to an individual’s needs, previous knowledge, and curiosities (Higginbotham-Wheat, 1992; Murray, 1998)), self-paced training using a variety of delivery methods (Compeau, 1995), distance learning (whether by videoconferencing, email, or other method). Learning networks, simulations, groupware communication, use of mentors or coaches, job rotation, management games, role playing and behavior modeling (Williams, 2001), or Internet based training. While many new training approaches based on new technology  exist, these modern training methods have been subjected to comparatively little empirical or critical study (Sadler-Smith, Down et al. , 2000). The literature suggests that that some of the most effective training techniques are not new, but are merely the application of old-fashioned common sense to the assessment of training needs (Switzer and Kleiner, 1996; Sadler-Smith, Down et al. , 2000; Smith, 2002). Sadler-Smith et al. (2000) believe that flexibility of delivery is a fundamental issue for smaller firms, to which open/distance/technology-based learning may present a workable solution; however, the modernity of some delivery methods may in itself lead to assumption of applicability and efficiency. Bostrom at all (1988) argue that the delivery method can directly influence the effectiveness of, and the benefits accrued from training. Read and Kleiner (1996) present the most commonly used training methods across non-industry specific U. S Companies. They found that the top ten training methods used in business, listed in order from highest to lowest use, were: videotapes, lectures, one-on-one instruction, role plays, games/simulation, case studies, slides, computer-based training, audio tapes, and films. In a survey carried out by 450 respondents, Mathews et al. (2001) studied the incidence of training delivery methods across non-industry specific organizations in the U.K. , Portugal, and Finland within the context of benefits accrued. They found that training methods most commonly used tended to be traditional, with little impact evident of more HITECH methods. Traditional methods included external short courses, internal lectures and seminars, issuing of training manuals and materials to be self-taught, using training videos, short demonstrations, and the delegation of training responsibilities to training consultants. This study found that in-house participative seminars were the preferred training delivery method in the UK, whereas external short courses were the preferred method in Finland and Portugal. Impersonal methods such as training videos, and internet or Computer-based training, were viewed across the UK, Finland, and Portugal as poor methods. In contrast, highly personal methods of training such as participative courses and seminars were viewed as the most effective and highly regarded methods. From a company perspective, training and development of company employees are essential for organizational operation, and organizational development. From an employee perspective, these same factors are both vital and critical for skill development and for career advancement. Retention of employees, and the retention of valued skill sets, is important for continued business achievements (Mak and Sockel, 1999). The successful retention of employees leads to knowledge conservation within the organization (Cappelli, 2000). Employee turnover may lead to a loss of human resources weakening competitive positions. At a company level, mechanisms that allow for and promote knowledge transfer amongst employees can help minimize the effect of the loss of skilled staff to other companies (Cappelli, 2000). Training employees leads to increased employee satisfaction, facilitates the updating of skills, leads to an increased sense of belonging and benefit, increased employee commitment to the organization (Bushardt, Fretwell et al. , 1994), and strengthens the organization’s competitiveness (Hughey and Mussnug, 1997; Burden and Proctor, 2000). Job-related training increases an employee’s ability to perform job-related tasks. Job satisfaction is an important motivator for employee performance and is negatively related to turnover (Mak and Sockel, 1999). Company commitment to the training needs of its employees positively influences employee satisfaction, leading to an increase in employee motivation and an increase in retention (Mak and Sockel, 1999; Ranft and Lord, 2000). Such commitment culminates in employee exposure to quality job-related training, leading to better employee morale, an increased sense of employee achievement and accomplishment (Elizur, 1996), and ultimately to an increase in organizational competitiveness. Whilst company commitment to training for its employees positively affects retention and leads to desirable outputs, there are many different categories and types of training (Switzer and Kleiner, 1996; Huang, 2001; Mathews, Ueno et al. , 2001). To have positive results, organizational commitment to training must tie closely to appropriate effective training methods and training delivery mechanisms. In terms of training methodologies, what may be appropriate for one company (or employee) may not be for another. This paper describes a descriptive study, which assesses the impact of training on employee retention, and examines the relationship between organizational commitment to training and benefits accrued. Results of the study demonstrate that organizational attitudes and provision for training relate positively to employee expectations and requirements. Findings indicate that well-engineered training initiatives lead to increased organizational strength, job-related employee competencies, and job satisfaction. The study finds that training helps in retaining knowledge within the organization, but may not help in retaining employees. The main method of training delivery is by instructor-led formal sessions, followed by self-training and workshops. Findings show that more modern methods such as web-based and computer based training are not pervasive. Almost one third of respondents believe that training received has not helped to reduce job-related stress. More than one quarter of respondents indicate that their organization does not structure training based on employee feedback on requirements. There are many cases where the training needs of employees have not been sufficiently addressed and cases where organizations have not evaluated the quality or effectiveness of training programmers, making return on investment hard to measure. To succeed, an organization must create an environment that not only attracts people to join and give their best every day, but one that also strives to retain existing staff. The retention of talented experienced, productive and knowledgeable employees can be a source of competitive advantage for companies (King, 1997; Cheng and Brown, 1998; Roepke, Agarwal et al. , 2000). The maintenance of employees provides staff stability, which aids organizational knowledge retention (Cappelli, 2000), offers the opportunity to raise quality standards through continuous improvement practices (Motwani, Frahm et al. , 1994) and facilitates the achievement of more reliable customer care (Rowley and Purcell, 2001). It is important for employers to identify and to understand their employees’ viewpoints on what the employees consider to be the most important aspects of their jobs, if employees are to be more content (Ventakesh, 1999; Mulder, 2001). While staff retention in general is important, the retention of IT employees is vital for business success (Mak and Sockel, 1999; MacDonald, Gabriel et al. , 2000). understanding IT leaders recognize that the greatest impediments to success are often related to people rather than to information, technology, and systems (Roepke, Agarwal et al. , 2000). Considering the high costs associated with replacing IT staff and their experience, it makes sense for companies to invest in mechanisms designed to keep IT staff longer (Mak and Sockel, 1999; Moore, 2000). One such staff retention mechanism is the use of employee training programmes for existing members of staff (Mulder, 2001). The use of such programmes in recent times by employers may have more to do with securing employee commitment in uncertain times than about transforming skill levels (Hallier and Butts, 1999). As such, for some organizations the key objective of training is to increase employee commitment to the organization and to create a culture that underlines the value of long-term employment. Mak and Sockel (1999) found that most employees consider career development a priority motivational tool; and once motivated, they are more likely to be devoted to their job and the company’s retention rate should improve. As such, management commitment to the development of the employee can significantly affect retention, even in situations where economic incentives such as incremental salary increases do not (Ranft and Lord, 2000). Specific training initiatives have specific goals. These include the improvement of employee job performance, employee development (Burden and Proctor, 2000), the development of skills, knowledge, and attitudes (Al-Khayyat and Elgamal, 1997), and a means of achieving a competitive edge (Hughey and Mussnug, 1997; Hallier and Butts, 2000). Given the fast obsolescence of IT specific skills there is a repeated need to provide opportunities for employees to update their technical skill sets. The failure to provide such training increase the chance of failure and such companies may pay more in the long run (Auer, 1995). Organizations must respond to demands for change while at the same time realizing that advances in technology and knowledge are rendering many traditional employee skills obsolete, while simultaneously developing needs for new ones (Read and Kleiner, 1996). It is this continuous risk of knowledge obsolescence that makes training and retraining necessary, not only for individual growth but also for organizational growth (Read and Kleiner, 1996). Within the IT sector, training can be considered to encompass organized, structured, formal events and sessions offered to IT employees as a company initiative. This paper does not consider on-the-job daily experiences to be classed as formal training, although such experiences can aid the development of skills related to job functions (Sadler-Smith, Down et al. , 2000; Smallbone, Supri et al. , 2000). The beginning of the modern concern about skills and economic competitiveness in the United States came perhaps with the government report, A Nation at Risk (National Commission on Excellence in Education, 1983), which documented the poor academic performance of U. S. students compared to those of major competitor nations. Studies such as Baumol, Blackman, and Wolff (1989) focused attention on the long-run and comparative performance of the U. S. economy. Piore and Sabel (1984), Cohen and Zysman (1987), and others drew attention to the importance of production work to an economy and to the fact that work organization and employee skills influenced the competitiveness of manufacturing firms and their ability to adapt to changing markets. Dertouzos, Lester, Solow, and the Industrial Productivity (1989) developed these views into an argument about declining U. S. competitiveness that became almost a standard for future studies. The work organization and management structures of U. S. firms rely too much on outdated scientific management approaches. They are hierarchical, based on narrow job titles and unskilled workers, and, as a result, are not as flexible in adjusting to changing markets as the competitor firms in other countries. The more flexible techniques of Japanese management in particular demand higher skills from the labor force. Other studies soon pounced on the connection between skills, productivity, and economic performance. Both America’s Choice (1990) and the Office of Technology Assessment’s report (1990) argued that higher levels of skills in the workforce were necessary in order to develop the new, more productive systems of work organization and compete successfully with other nations. With these reports as a backdrop, the Secretary of Labor’s Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills (SCANS) was established in 1990 to identify the skills that the workplace was demanding. In its various reports, the Commission has argued forcefully that new types of organizations and new arrangements for organizing work—employee empowerment, teams, and new work technologies—require new skills and a higher level of existing skills from workers. Furthermore, the skills that are required are at least in part general work skills that translate across employers and industries. Both employers and individual workers are seen as benefiting from those higher skills (SCANS, 1992). Arguments like these have in large measure been responsible for a new thrust in public policy toward raising skill levels, especially through schooling. The National Goals for Education, for example, is an effort to raise educational standards in the country at least in part to improve competitiveness. The list of skills identified by SCANS as reasonably generic to the U. S. economy has been used to drive the curriculum in high schools and in training programs such as the Job Corps and those funded by the Job Training Partnership. The School-to-Work Opportunities Act, passed by Congress to establish school-to-work change programs like youth apprenticeships, is also designed to raise work-related skills. Given the speed with which these arguments have moved forward, it is indeed surprising to find so little experiential research that examines the relationship between skills, worker productivity, and economic performance. It is not obvious, in the absence of empirical evidence; those higher levels of skills will necessarily lead to better economic performance. Unless jobs require or allow workers to make use of higher skills, for example, one should not expect performance to improve when skills increase. Further, jobs that require higher levels of skills now than in the past still may not tax the skills that employees already have. In assembly jobs, for example, the initial skill requirements are so low that they could rise substantially and still be within the set that virtually all workers possess. Loewenstein and Spletzer (1999), Booth and Bryan (2002) find, that most or all the training that is sponsored by employers result in workers acquiring general skills that can be used at other firms. Such recent findings have sparked a renewed interest in the following question: do workers who acquire transferable skills from employer-sponsored training continue working in the same job or do they seek better returns for their newly acquired skills from other employers? While this question has been explored in many recent studies, most of this research (possibly due to the nature of the survey data available) has focused on younger workers or a cross-section of workers. Finally, where skills are in shortage, the relevant skills may be job-specific ones that are typically seen as being the responsibility of the employer to provide. Perhaps the main reason for the lack of research on skills and performance is the difficulty in obtaining direct measures of an employee’s skill. What are typically available are aggregate measures of the amount of education and training workers receive. These are the inputs that should produce skill and that are related to indirect measures of performance. The body of research on the economic returns on education is particularly wide and may have some relevance for these questions. Human capital research clearly finds that employees with more education earn more, suggesting that the skills they have are valued in the market. Whether education is simply a alternate or screen for some other desirable characteristic, such as resolve, is a complicating factor in the argument. The fact that the return on education appears to be rising over the past decade—rising rapidly for college graduates and falling sharply for high school dropouts— suggests that such education is increasingly valuable in the labor market (cf. Levy & Murnane, 1992). The fact that both initial and further education and training earn a higher return suggests that some of the skills associated with education are increasingly valuable (see Tuijnman, 1992, for references to research in Colombia, the Netherlands, Sweden, Norway, and the United States). But for which specific skills is the return being earned? Research on the relationship between vocational course work and subsequent job performance may shed some light on this question. Vocational education programs typically provide training for specific occupations, and research on the labor market outcomes for students in these programs can help in understanding the effects of general or vocational skills on the economy. Altonji (1992) found that students who took more vocational courses earned higher wages, other things being equal. Other studies find that enrollment in vocational education programs improves participants’ labor market experience but only for those who find jobs in the field for which they received training (e. g. , Campbell, Eliot, Laughlin, & Suesy, 1987). High school students who participate in vocationally oriented programs like workstudy and co-op substitute on-the-job training for academic classes, andstudies suggest that they do not necessarily do better in the labor market than those who did not participate in such programs (Bishop, Blakemore, & Low, 1985). Hollenbeck (cited in Stern, Stone, Finkelstein, Latting, & Martinez, 1993) found that students enrolled in occupationally based technical training following high school did better in the labor market than did those who pursued a baccalaureate program. It is difficult to draw reliable conclusions from these studies about the skills needed to improve economic performance (Berryman, 1994; Stern & Tuijnman, in press). The fact that vocational skills pay off when graduates find jobs in their field of training but not otherwise may indicate, for example, that the programs help simply by giving access to a well-paying job market. In one of the few studies that attempts to sort out the source of higher wages, Grubb (1991) concludes that the return on a two-year college degree comes mainly from access to better paying occupations than are available to non-degree workers and not from obtaining higher paying jobs within the same occupation. The latter measures the extent to which education produces higher performance for the economy as a whole. The complication noted above about interpreting evidence on returns from education is that education may function as a screen for some other desirable characteristic, such as persistence, that covaries with educational attainment and drives success. One way around this problem is to examine individuals’ skills directly, as opposed to their educational attainment. Bishop’s (1991) comparison of workers’ wages with their scores on the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery is one example of this approach. (Al-Khayyat and Elgamal, 1997) He finds that higher competencies were not associated with higher starting wages. Basic academic competencies such as mathematical ability actually received a negative premium from the labor market while vocational skills such as typing speed earned a considerable premium. , (Hughey and Mussnug, 1997; Hallier and Butts, 2000). These competencies were related, however, to performance on the job as measured by the reports of supervisors. SCANS conducted its own, although indirect, test of the relationship between skills and performance by examining the current wages for a sample of jobs and the SCANS competencies associated with them (SCANS, 1992, p. 9). Not surprisingly, it was found that jobs requiring higher skills pay more. As noted above, however, it is not clear what to conclude from this. It does not indicate, for example, that workers with higher skills perform better in the same job or that the economy would be better off if skills levels rose. A second complication about interpreting evidence from the economic returns on skills as measured by wages is that such skills raise wages in two ways. The first is by providing access to higher paying occupations, and the second is by helping improve performance within occupations. The policy interest associated with the arguments above is mainly with the second relationship. While jobs in medicine, for example, require higher skills and pay individuals more, the economy as a whole cannot grow by making more and more people into doctors. Even for individuals, the gains from expanding access to higher wage occupations face the well-known fallacy of composition. If the supply of workers with the skills needed to fill a particular job rose, the wages associated with that job would fall, as would its desirability. Performance and wages can grow, however, if all workers become more productive at their current jobs. An alternative approach, therefore, is to examine the relationship between skills and job performance within one’s current job, using actual job productivity measures for the estimates. Most of these studies come from personnel psychology where they form the basis of attempts to validate selection procedures (see, e. g. , American Psychological Association, American Educational Research Association, & National Council on Measurement in Education [Joint Committee], 1985). Studies of skills that might generalize across settings concentrate mainly on academic material of the kind associated with classroom instruction. Academic skills as measured by aptitude tests can be reasonably good predictors of job performance (cf. Barrett & Depinet, 1991). The best known of these tests is the General Abilities Test Battery (GATB), which is used extensively by the employment service. The cognitive composite scale from GATB measures traditional academic skills such as verbal and numeric skill. It is related to job performance at roughly the same level as vocational skills, which correlate at levels between . 20 and . 30 (see National Research Council, 1989). Academic performance as measured by grades in school, however, is a substantially worse predictor of job performance (cf. Hunter & Hunter, 1984; Schmitt, Goodling, Noe, & Kirsch, 1984). Other studies use organizational performance measures to examine the relationship with skills. Bartel and Lichtenberg (1987) find, for example, that the rate of innovation is higher in industries that have more educated workers. Cohen and Levinthal (1990) also find that firms that have made a greater investment in learning experience greater innovations. Overall, the results surveyed above suggest that job performance—and ultimately economic performance—might be improved by raising academic skills in the workforce as a whole. 2 With respect to the policy arguments above, however, it is not clear which skills are the important ones for performance or whether new work systems are creating higher demands for skills. SCANS essentially performed a job analysis for the economy as a whole, producing a set of basic skills that are said to generalize across virtually all jobs in the workplace. While all job analyses are somewhat subjective, the SCANS skills are similar to those generated by other widely used job analyses such as the Position Analysis Questionnaire (McCormick & Jeanneret, 1988). SCANS identified two categories of these general skills: foundation skills associated with traditional academic education and interpersonal skills, and workplace competencies, which are more practical and vocational, applying skills to a workplace context.